SARS-CoV-2 entry requires sequential cleavage of the spike glycoprotein at the S1/S2 and the S2′ cleavage sites to mediate membrane fusion. SARS-CoV-2 has a polybasic insertion (PRRAR) at the S1/S2 cleavage site that can be cleaved by furin. Using lentiviral pseudotypes and a cell-culture-adapted SARS-CoV-2 virus with an S1/S2 deletion, we show that the polybasic insertion endows SARS-CoV-2 with a selective advantage in lung cells and primary human airway epithelial cells, but impairs replication in Vero E6, a cell line used for passaging SARS-CoV-2. Using engineered spike variants and live virus competition assays and by measuring growth kinetics, we find that the selective advantage in lung and primary human airway epithelial cells depends on the expression of the cell surface protease TMPRSS2, which enables endosome-independent virus entry by a route that avoids antiviral IFITM proteins. SARS-CoV-2 virus lacking the S1/S2 furin cleavage site was shed to lower titres from infected ferrets and was not transmitted to cohoused sentinel animals, unlike wild-type virus. Analysis of 100,000 SARS-CoV-2 sequences derived from patients and 24 human postmortem tissues showed low frequencies of naturally occurring mutants that harbour deletions at the polybasic site. Taken together, our findings reveal that the furin cleavage site is an important determinant of SARS-CoV-2 transmission.
Vaccination reduces the risk of delta variant infection and accelerates viral clearance. Nonetheless, fully vaccinated individuals with breakthrough infections have peak viral load similar to unvaccinated cases and can efficiently transmit infection in household settings, including to fully vaccinated contacts. Host–virus interactions early in infection may shape the entire viral trajectory.
Summary Background The SARS-CoV-2 delta (B.1.617.2) variant is highly transmissible and spreading globally, including in populations with high vaccination rates. We aimed to investigate transmission and viral load kinetics in vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals with mild delta variant infection in the community. Methods Between Sept 13, 2020, and Sept 15, 2021, 602 community contacts (identified via the UK contract-tracing system) of 471 UK COVID-19 index cases were recruited to the Assessment of Transmission and Contagiousness of COVID-19 in Contacts cohort study and contributed 8145 upper respiratory tract samples from daily sampling for up to 20 days. Household and non-household exposed contacts aged 5 years or older were eligible for recruitment if they could provide informed consent and agree to self-swabbing of the upper respiratory tract. We analysed transmission risk by vaccination status for 231 contacts exposed to 162 epidemiologically linked delta variant-infected index cases. We compared viral load trajectories from fully vaccinated individuals with delta infection (n=29) with unvaccinated individuals with delta (n=16), alpha (B.1.1.7; n=39), and pre-alpha (n=49) infections. Primary outcomes for the epidemiological analysis were to assess the secondary attack rate (SAR) in household contacts stratified by contact vaccination status and the index cases’ vaccination status. Primary outcomes for the viral load kinetics analysis were to detect differences in the peak viral load, viral growth rate, and viral decline rate between participants according to SARS-CoV-2 variant and vaccination status. Findings
The SAR in household contacts exposed to the delta variant was 25% (95% CI 18–33) for fully vaccinated individuals compared with 38% (24–53) in unvaccinated individuals. The median time between second vaccine dose and study recruitment in fully vaccinated contacts was longer for infected individuals (median 101 days [IQR 74–120]) than for uninfected individuals (64 days [32–97], p=0·001). SAR among household contacts exposed to fully vaccinated index cases was similar to household contacts exposed to unvaccinated index cases (25% [95% CI 15–35] for vaccinated vs 23% [15–31] for unvaccinated). 12 (39%) of 31 infections in fully vaccinated household contacts arose from fully vaccinated epidemiologically linked index cases, further confirmed by genomic and virological analysis in three index case–contact pairs. Although peak viral load did not differ by vaccination status or variant type, it increased modestly with age (difference of 0·39 [95% credible interval –0·03 to 0·79] in peak log10 viral load per mL between those aged 10 years and 50 years). Fully vaccinated individuals with delta variant infection had a faster (posterior probability >0·84) mean rate of viral load decline (0·95 log10 copies per mL per day) than did unvaccinated individuals with pre-alpha (0·69), alpha (0·82), or delta (0·79) variant infections. Within individuals, faster viral load growth was correlated with higher peak viral load (correlation 0·42 [95% credible interval 0·13 to 0·65]) and slower decline (–0·44 [–0·67 to –0·18]).
Nestibo L, Lee BE, Fonseca K, Beirnes J, Johnson MM, Sikora CA.
Author information
Communicable Disease Control, Alberta Health Services;
Abstractin
In the midst of a local measles outbreak, a recently immunized child was investigated for a new-onset measles-type rash. Nucleic acid testing identified that a vaccine-type measles virus was being shed in the urine. Clinically differentiating measles from a nonmeasles rash is challenging, but can be supported by a thorough medical history evaluation. Rashes are expected to occur after immunization; nucleic acid testing can be used when it is difficult to differentiate between wild and attenuated strains.
US National Library of Medicine
National Institutes of Health – Jan 2009
Lederman E, Miramontes R, Openshaw J, Olson VA, Karem KL, Marcinak J, Panares R, Staggs W, Allen D, Weber SG, Vora S, Gerber SI, Hughes CM, Regnery R, Collins L, Diaz PS, Reynolds MG, Damon I.
Author information
Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA. edith.lederman@med.navy.mil
Abstract
On March 3, 2007, a 2-year-old boy was hospitalized with eczema vaccinatum. His two siblings, one with eczema, were subsequently removed from the home. Swabs of household items obtained on March 13th were analyzed for orthopoxvirus DNA signatures with real-time PCR. Virus culture was attempted on positive specimens. Eight of 25 household samples were positive by PCR for orthopoxvirus; of these, three yielded viable vaccinia virus in culture. Both siblings were found to have serologic evidence of orthopoxvirus exposure. These findings have implications for smallpox preparedness, especially in situations where some household members are not candidates for vaccination.
US National Library of Medicine
National Institutes of Health – Jan 2005
Minor PD, Dunn G, Ramsay ME, Brown D.
Author information
National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Blanche Lane South Mimms, Potters Bar, Herts, EN6 3QG, UK. pminor@nibsc.ac.uk
Abstract
Excretion of live oral poliovaccine and molecular markers of increased virulence in the viruses isolated were examined in children who were either previously immunised with inactivated or live vaccine or were unimmunised. There appeared to be some effect of previous immunisation with either live or killed vaccine at the second dose of live vaccine. Where an effect was seen it took the form of reduced rates of excretion, shorter time periods of excretion and more rapid and complete reversion of the excreted virus. The data are consistent with the view that poliovirus is able to escape the immune pressure in the gut to some extent by improving its general fitness rather than direct evasion of immunity.
1 Corinthians 15 Authorized (King James) Version (AKJV)
1 Moreover, brethren, I declare unto you the gospel which I preached unto you, which also ye have received, and wherein ye stand;
2 by which also ye are saved, if ye keep in memory what I preached unto you, unless ye have believed in vain.
3 For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received, how that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures;
4 and that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures:
Hebrews 6 Authorized (King James) Version (AKJV)
1 Therefore leaving the principles of the doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection; not laying again the foundation of repentance from dead works, and of faith toward God,
2 of the doctrine of baptisms, and of laying on of hands, and of resurrection of the dead, and of eternal judgment.
3 And this will we do, if God permit.
4 For it is impossible for those who were once enlightened, and have tasted of the heavenly gift, and were made partakers of the Holy Ghost,
5 and have tasted the good word of God, and the powers of the world to come,
6 if they shall fall away, to renew them again unto repentance; seeing they crucify to themselves the Son of God afresh, and put him to an open shame.
7 For the earth which drinketh in the rain that cometh oft upon it, and bringeth forth herbs meet for them by whom it is dressed, receiveth blessing from God:
8 but that which beareth thorns and briers is rejected, and is nigh unto cursing; whose end is to be burned.
1 Who hath believed our report? and to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed?
2 For he shall grow up before him as a tender plant,and as a root out of a dry ground:he hath no form nor comeliness;and when we shall see him,there is no beauty that we should desire him.
3 He is despised and rejected of men;a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief:and we hid as it were our faces from him;he was despised, and we esteemed him not.
4 Surely he hath borne our griefs,and carried our sorrows:yet we did esteem him stricken,smitten of God, and afflicted.
5 But he was wounded for our transgressions,he was bruised for our iniquities:the chastisement of our peace was upon him;and with his stripes we are healed.
6 All we like sheep have gone astray;we have turned every one to his own way;and the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all.
7 He was oppressed, and he was afflicted,yet he opened not his mouth:he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter,and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb,so he openeth not his mouth.
8 He was taken from prison and from judgment:and who shall declare his generation? for he was cut off out of the land of the living:for the transgression of my people was he stricken.
9 And he made his grave with the wicked,and with the rich in his death;because he had done no violence,neither was any deceit in his mouth.
10 Yet it pleased the Lord to bruise him;he hath put him to grief:when thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin,he shall see his seed, he shall prolong his days,and the pleasure of the Lord shall prosper in his hand.
11 He shall see of the travail of his soul, and shall be satisfied:by his knowledge shall my righteous servant justify many;for he shall bear their iniquities.
12 Therefore will I divide him a portion with the great,and he shall divide the spoil with the strong;because he hath poured out his soul unto death:and he was numbered with the transgressors;and he bare the sin of many,and made intercession for the transgressors.
Duane L. Pierson,1 Satish K. Mehta,2 Don Gilden,corresponding author4,5 Randall J. Cohrs,4 Maria A. Nagel,4 D. Scott Schmid,6 and Stephen K. Tyring3
1 Space Life Sciences, NASA, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
2 Enterprise Advisory Services, Inc
3 University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas
4 Department of Neurology
5 Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora
6 National VZV Laboratory, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
Correspondence: Don Gilden, MD, Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 12700 E 19th Ave, Box B182, Aurora, CO 80045 (ude.revnedcu@nedlig.nod).
Abstract
Analysis of 36 individuals over age 60 years who were immunized with Zostavax revealed varicella zoster virus (VZV) DNA in swabs of skin inoculation sites obtained immediately after immunization in 18 (50%) of 36 subjects (copy number per nanogram of total DNA, 28 to 2.1 × 106) and in saliva collected over 28 days in 21 (58%) of 36 subjects (copy number, 20 to 248). Genotypic analysis of DNA extracted from 9 random saliva samples identified vaccine virus in all instances. In some immunized individuals over age 60, vaccine virus DNA is shed in saliva up to 4 weeks.
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus. Primary infection usually causes varicella (chicken pox) in children. Airborne VZV enters the nasopharynx and replicates in tonsillar T cells followed by viremia and skin lesions [1, 2]. After primary infection, VZV becomes latent in neurons of cranial nerve ganglia, dorsal root ganglia, and autonomic ganglia along the entire neuraxis. Decades later, VZV reactivates in elderly and immunocompromised individuals to produce zoster (shingles), a syndrome characterized by pain and a vesicular rash on an erythematous base in 1–3 dermatomes. Zoster is common, with ∼1,000,000 cases annually in the United States. Importantly, zoster is often followed by chronic pain (postherpetic neuralgia [PHN]) as well as by meningoencephalitis, cerebellitis, cranial nerve palsies, vasculopathy, myelopathy, and multiple inflammatory diseases of the eye [3].
To prevent zoster and its attendant neurological complications, Zostavax vaccine (Merck) was approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in individuals at least 60 years of age. Over a 3-year period, Zostavax effectively reduced the risk of zoster by 51% and PHN by 66% in nearly 20,000 healthy adults age 60 years or older [4]. Zostavax contains live attenuated VZV, and the package insert warns newly vaccinated individuals to avoid contact for an unspecified time with newborn infants, immunosuppressed individuals, and pregnant women who have not had chicken pox or have not been immunized for chicken pox. Because VZV DNA is present in saliva of zoster patients for at least 2 weeks [5] and VZV in saliva can also be infectious [6], we examined the inoculation site and saliva of Zostavax-vaccinated subjects for the presence of VZV DNA for 4 weeks after immunization.
US National Library of Medicine
National Institutes of Health – 1980
SIR,-The recommendations and medicolegal implications of smallpox vaccination have been discussed in these columns on several occasions
(11 October 1980, p 1004; 25 October, pp 1141 and 1142).
Although vaccination for the public is no longer necessary it is worth noting, as Minerva pointed out (4 April, p 1163), that it continues to be offered to the British Army (both regular and reserve). The risk of transmission of vaccinia by recently vaccinated soldiers to their close and immediate susceptible contacts therefore is likely to increase. This has been illustrated in the following case. A 23-year-old Scottish housewife was referred to the gynaecology department of this hospital on 17 December from the local family planning clinic for confirmation of diagnosis of presumed genital herpes simplex infection. The patient had developed painful itchy lesions on the vulva one week previously and she had also noticed similar lesions on her left loin and ear lobe. On examination she had large moist umbilicated vesicles on the vulva as well as on her left hip and left ear lobe. A clinical diagnosis of vaccinia was confirmed at the regional virus laboratory, Ruchill Hospital, by electron microscopy, and vaccinia virus was isolated in cell culture. These lesions rapidly regress,.d and healed with local application of betadine paint. The history of contact with a vaccinated person was not volunteered; but on close questioning it was revealed that the patient’s husband, who had joined the Royal Air Force, had been vaccinated three weeks previously and had been home at weekends. The patient herself had not been vaccinated in the past. In 1980, of six reported incidents of contact vaccinia received by the Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre,1 one was almost identical to our own case: a young woman whose soldier husband had been vaccinated three weeks previously developed genital vaccinia. Another case was in a soldier who had taken part in a boxing match and may have been infected by a colleague. The immediate and obvious question that arises is whether vaccination in the armed Forces is justifiable when there is no valid medical reason for it, and it is no longer necessary for international travel (except to Chad and democratic Kampuchea). The policy of smallpox vaccination has been discussed in a recent editorial of the Jrournal of the Royal Army Medical Corps2 and the main argument for vaccination seems to be to protect the Forces against the possible use of smallpox virus by an enemy as an agent of biological warfare. If the vaccination of the army personnel should continue because of this unlikely but perfectly feasible threat of germ warfare, one can only endorse the view that “Continued education of service personnel and their contacts about the risk and its prevention is now, therefore, even more essential than before.”3 Otherwise we might see more cases of genital vaccinia in women transmitted from recently vaccinated young, healthy, virile British soldiers.
US National Library of Medicine
National Institutes of Health – Feb 2012
Wertheimer ER, Olive DS, Brundage JF, Clark LL.
Author information
Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, 11800 Tech Road, Suite 220, Silver Spring, MD 20904, USA. ellen.wertheimer@us.army.mil
Abstract
Since 2002, approximately 40,000 US civilians and 2.1 million military personnel have been vaccinated against smallpox. The vaccine contains live vaccinia virus that can be transferred through physical contact. This report summarizes numbers, rates, and characteristics of contact vaccinia cases that presented between December 2002 and March 2011. Cases were identified from reports in adverse event reporting systems and peer-reviewed literature. One hundred fifteen cases of vaccinia transmission through contact were identified (5.4 per 100,000 vaccinees); 52 reports (45%) noted laboratory confirmation. Three-quarters of vaccinees, but fewer than 8% of contact vaccinia cases, were described as military members. Most cases were household or intimate contacts (n=86, 75%) or wrestling partners (n=18, 16%) of vaccinees. Nearly all cases manifested mild, local skin reactions; of 14 hospitalized cases, one was life-threatening. Vaccinia transmission from vaccinees is relatively infrequent. Continued attention to both vaccinee education and screening for contraindications to vaccination is appropriate.
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1 Corinthians 15 Authorized (King James) Version (AKJV)
1 Moreover, brethren, I declare unto you the gospel which I preached unto you, which also ye have received, and wherein ye stand;
2 by which also ye are saved, if ye keep in memory what I preached unto you, unless ye have believed in vain.
3 For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received, how that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures;
4 and that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures:
Hebrews 6 Authorized (King James) Version (AKJV)
1 Therefore leaving the principles of the doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection; not laying again the foundation of repentance from dead works, and of faith toward God,
2 of the doctrine of baptisms, and of laying on of hands, and of resurrection of the dead, and of eternal judgment.
3 And this will we do, if God permit.
4 For it is impossible for those who were once enlightened, and have tasted of the heavenly gift, and were made partakers of the Holy Ghost,
5 and have tasted the good word of God, and the powers of the world to come,
6 if they shall fall away, to renew them again unto repentance; seeing they crucify to themselves the Son of God afresh, and put him to an open shame.
7 For the earth which drinketh in the rain that cometh oft upon it, and bringeth forth herbs meet for them by whom it is dressed, receiveth blessing from God:
8 but that which beareth thorns and briers is rejected, and is nigh unto cursing; whose end is to be burned.
1 Who hath believed our report? and to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed?
2 For he shall grow up before him as a tender plant,and as a root out of a dry ground:he hath no form nor comeliness;and when we shall see him,there is no beauty that we should desire him.
3 He is despised and rejected of men;a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief:and we hid as it were our faces from him;he was despised, and we esteemed him not.
4 Surely he hath borne our griefs,and carried our sorrows:yet we did esteem him stricken,smitten of God, and afflicted.
5 But he was wounded for our transgressions,he was bruised for our iniquities:the chastisement of our peace was upon him;and with his stripes we are healed.
6 All we like sheep have gone astray;we have turned every one to his own way;and the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all.
7 He was oppressed, and he was afflicted,yet he opened not his mouth:he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter,and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb,so he openeth not his mouth.
8 He was taken from prison and from judgment:and who shall declare his generation? for he was cut off out of the land of the living:for the transgression of my people was he stricken.
9 And he made his grave with the wicked,and with the rich in his death;because he had done no violence,neither was any deceit in his mouth.
10 Yet it pleased the Lord to bruise him;he hath put him to grief:when thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin,he shall see his seed, he shall prolong his days,and the pleasure of the Lord shall prosper in his hand.
11 He shall see of the travail of his soul, and shall be satisfied:by his knowledge shall my righteous servant justify many;for he shall bear their iniquities.
12 Therefore will I divide him a portion with the great,and he shall divide the spoil with the strong;because he hath poured out his soul unto death:and he was numbered with the transgressors;and he bare the sin of many,and made intercession for the transgressors.
Poland GA, Jacobson RM.
Author information
Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Vaccine Research Group, Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, MN.
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Measles is the most transmissible disease known to man. During the 1980s, the number of measles cases in the United States rose dramatically. Surprisingly, 20% to 40% of these cases occurred in persons who had been appropriately immunized against measles. In response, the United States adopted a two-dose universal measles immunization program. We critically examine the effect of vaccine failure in measles occurring in immunized persons.
METHODS:
We performed a computerized bibliographic literature search (National Library of Medicine) for all English-language articles dealing with measles outbreaks. We limited our search to reports of US and Canadian school-based outbreaks of measles, and we spoke with experts to get estimates of vaccine failure rates. In addition, we devised a hypothetical model of a school where measles immunization rates could be varied, vaccine failure rates could be calculated, and the percentage of measles cases occurring in immunized students could be determined.
RESULTS:
We found 18 reports of measles outbreaks in very highly immunized school populations where 71% to 99.8% of students were immunized against measles. Despite these high rates of immunization, 30% to 100% (mean, 77%) of all measles cases in these outbreaks occurred in previously immunized students. In our hypothetical school model, after more than 95% of schoolchildren are immunized against measles, the majority of measles cases occur in appropriately immunized children.
CONCLUSIONS:
The apparent paradox is that as measles immunization rates rise to high levels in a population, measles becomes a disease of immunized persons. Because of the failure rate of the vaccine and the unique transmissibility of the measles virus, the currently available measles vaccine, used in a single-dose strategy, is unlikely to completely eliminate measles. The long-term success of a two-dose strategy to eliminate measles remains to be determined.
An investigation into an outbreak in a high school in a town that was heavily hit by the virus found that about half of the cases were in teens who had received the recommended two doses of vaccine in childhood — in other words, teens whom authorities would have expected to have been protected from the measles virus.
It’s generally assumed that the measles vaccine, when given in a two-dose schedule in early childhood, should protect against measles infection about 99 per cent of the time. So the discovery that 52 of the 98 teens who caught measles were fully vaccinated came as a shock to the researchers who conducted the investigation.
“That’s the real question. How could that have happened?” said Dr. Gaston De Serres, an infectious diseases expert with Quebec’s public health agency and one of the authors of the study.
In an interview before the start of the conference, De Serres would not name the highly affected town or the high school in it.
But he suggested the discovery that as many of the cases were fully vaccinated as unvaccinated raises a serious question about whether the timing of the delivery of the first dose of measles vaccine is undermining the efficacy of the prevention program.
The vaccine can’t be given earlier, because of a phenomenon that helps babies survive infancy. Children are born without a fully developed immune system — it starts to build as babies become exposed to a variety of disease threats over their first few years.
In pregnancy and after birth, through breastfeeding, babies acquire antibodies from their mothers that tide them over until they can make their own. But that means if they are given the measles vaccine — which is made from weakened live viruses — too early, their mothers’ antibodies will kill the vaccine viruses, preventing protection from being induced.
US National Library of Medicine
National Institutes of Health – 2006
Abstract
Here we describe symptomatic transmission of the Leningrad-3 mumps vaccine virus from healthy vaccinees to previously vaccinated contacts. Throat swab and serum samples were taken from six symptomatic mumps cases and from 13 family contacts. Assessment of serum IgG and IgM anti-mumps virus antibodies and IgG avidity testing was performed using commercial test kits. Sera neutralizing antibodies were measured by plaque reduction neutralization assay using the L-3 vaccine mumps virus as the target. All six of the symptomatic mumps cases and three contact subjects tested positive for mumps by RT-PCR. The genomic sequences tested (F, SH and HN genes) of all nine of these samples were identical to the L-3 mumps vaccine strain. All 13 contacts were asymptomatic; however clear serological evidence of mumps infection was found in some of them. The likely epidemiological source of the transmitted L-3 mumps virus was children who were recently vaccinated at the schools attended by the six symptomatic mumps patients described here. The L-3 mumps vaccine virus can be shed and transmitted horizontally, even to subjects previously vaccinated with the same virus.
US National Library of Medicine
National Institutes of Health – 2014
Zhifang Wang,1 Rui Yan,1 Hanqing He,1 Qian Li,1 Guohua Chen,2 Shengxu Yang,3 and Enfu Chen1,*
Martyn Kirk, Editor
1 – Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, P. R. China
2 – Cixi City Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Cixi, Ningbo, P. R. China
3 – Sanmen County Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Sanmen, Taizhou, P. R. China
Abstract
Background
The reported coverage of the measles–rubella (MR) or measles–mumps–rubella (MMR) vaccine is greater than 99.0% in Zhejiang province. However, the incidence of measles, mumps, and rubella remains high. In this study, we assessed MMR seropositivity and disease distribution by age on the basis of the current vaccination program, wherein the first dose of MR is administered at 8 months and the second dose of MMR is administered at 18–24 months.
Methods
Cross-sectional serological surveys of MMR antibodies were conducted by collecting epidemiological data in Zhejiang province, China in 2011. In total, 1015 participants were randomly selected from two surveillance sites. Serum MMR-specific immunoglobulin G levels were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The geometric mean titers and seroprevalence with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated by age and gender. Proportions of different dose of vaccine by age by vaccine were also identified. Statistically significant differences between categories were assessed by the Chi-square test.
Results
Over 95% seroprevalence rates of measles were seen in all age groups except <7 months infants. Children aged 5–9 years were shown lower seropositivity rates of mumps while elder adolescences and young adults were presented lower rubella seroprevalence. Especially, rubella seropositivity was significantly lower in female adults than in male. Nine measles cases were unvaccinated or unknown vaccination history. Among them, 66.67% (6/9) patients were aged 20–29 years while 33.33% (3/9) were infants aged 8–12 months. In addition, 57.75% (648/1122) patients with mumps were children aged 5–9 years, and 50.54% (94/186) rubella cases were aged 15–39 years.
Conclusions
A timely two-dose MMR vaccination schedule is recommended, with the first dose at 8 months and the second dose at 18–24 months. An MR vaccination speed-up campaign may be necessary for elder adolescents and young adults, particularly young females.
I am injured by the flu shot
MMR vaccine injured me
My family is injured by vaccines
Hep B vaccine and Vit K made my baby sick
I Wish We Would Have KNOWN! William and Rachael tell their story of their two boys who have suffered from vaccine injury in Ireland.
Interview recorded on May 5th, 2017 in The United Kingdom
I have finally woken up to the truth about vaccines
1 Corinthians 15 Authorized (King James) Version (AKJV)
1 Moreover, brethren, I declare unto you the gospel which I preached unto you, which also ye have received, and wherein ye stand;
2 by which also ye are saved, if ye keep in memory what I preached unto you, unless ye have believed in vain.
3 For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received, how that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures;
4 and that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures:
Hebrews 6 Authorized (King James) Version (AKJV)
1 Therefore leaving the principles of the doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection; not laying again the foundation of repentance from dead works, and of faith toward God,
2 of the doctrine of baptisms, and of laying on of hands, and of resurrection of the dead, and of eternal judgment.
3 And this will we do, if God permit.
4 For it is impossible for those who were once enlightened, and have tasted of the heavenly gift, and were made partakers of the Holy Ghost,
5 and have tasted the good word of God, and the powers of the world to come,
6 if they shall fall away, to renew them again unto repentance; seeing they crucify to themselves the Son of God afresh, and put him to an open shame.
7 For the earth which drinketh in the rain that cometh oft upon it, and bringeth forth herbs meet for them by whom it is dressed, receiveth blessing from God:
8 but that which beareth thorns and briers is rejected, and is nigh unto cursing; whose end is to be burned.
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